2018年12月8日托福考试阅读预测机经（版本合集！）

各位战托宝宝们，本周六的托福考试你是否已经准备好了？临考前阅读一下有关本场考试的预测机经，缓解一下紧张的心情吧！以下是本场考试阅读预测机经。

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1走路比游泳省力，先说动物里游泳的，鱼和鸭子，鸭子遇到的wave什么的更大，阻力大，鱼在水下，阻力小。鸟因为要支撑自己，鱼在水里就不用，所以飞行也耗力。走路因为涉及加速减速，这个过程就最耗力。骑单车的时候的动作就导致需要消耗和跑步一样的力。

2 New Europeans Settle on America

内容回忆：因为开垦森林的成本比较高，欧洲人利用当地已开垦过的森林。但是因为人口不断增加，资源不再满足人口的需求，他们只能开始自己砍伐森林，砍伐森林有两种方式，直接砍伐和使树枝脱落。后来，农民们发现后面一种方法需要很多肥料，农民们燃烧树枝制作草木灰维持养料的需求。农民们还采用了美洲人的方式，几种作物同时生长，互相起促进作用。

3 songbird的migration减少，首先是某人发现了这个现象，在60s-80s migration减少50%，然后就有人认为这不是个general的现象，但是接着就根据unusual distribution 发现是general，因为森林碎片化引起了ecosystem change，所以migration减少。

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4教猩猩交流

想要知道动物能不能和人一样交流，有两种方法：

一、学习动物的交流方式；

二、教动物sign language做交流(发声系统不一样，所以不能是vocal)。提到了马的反例(训练的人偷偷给暗示，眨眼之类的)，所以做实验，录下来，大家都不知道是什么，让猩猩去选，猩猩都选出来了。还有个小猩猩的玩具掉了，他指掉的地方选open, trainer就猜出来了，捡回来toy，而这些之前都没有教过，是新的。

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Environmental Impact of the Anasazi

P1: A major question in the archaeology of the southwestern region of the United States is why so many impressive settlements, and even entire regions, were abandoned in prehistoric times. Archaeologist Tim Kohler has suggested that the nature of human-environmental interaction was an important reason in the case of the Anasazi people. The actual case study that Kohler relies on is from the Dolores River basin of southwest Colorado, where the Anasazi seem to have moved in about A.D. 600. Over the following couple of centuries, the population increased, and they aggregated (or gathered) into villages, but by about A.D. 900 the area began to be abandoned. Other archaeologists have identified the immediate cause of this abandonment to be a series of short growing seasons that would have put pressure on corn production at that high an altitude. Kohler, however, assets that a growing population led to human-environmental interactions that caused people to live in villages, intensify agrarian food production, deforest the region, deplete the local soils, and ultimately abandon the area.

美国西南部地区的考古学家面临的一个主要问题是：为什么在史前时代有那么多令人印象深刻的移民点，甚至整个地区都被遗弃了呢?考古学家蒂姆·科勒(Tim Kohler)认为，人类与环境相互作用的本质是阿纳萨奇人灭绝的一个重要原因。科勒所依赖的实际案例研究来自科罗拉多州西南部的多洛雷斯河流域，阿纳萨奇人似乎在公元600年左右迁居于此。在接下来的几个世纪里，人口不断增加，他们聚集(或聚集)到村庄里，但到了公元900年左右，这个地区开始被遗弃。其他考古学家认为，造成这种废弃的直接原因是一系列的短生长期，这些生长期可能会对如此高海拔地区的玉米生产造成压力。然而，科勒的资产，人口增长导致了人类与环境的相互作用，导致人们生活在村庄，加强农业粮食生产，砍伐森林，耗尽当地土壤，最终放弃该地区。

P2: Kohler uses several kinds of evidence to show that human effects, not solely climatic factors, were important factors in the abandonment of settlements. One key indicator of change in the environment surrounding these prehistoric settlements is the wood that was used there. Archaeological study of wood charcoal found in hearths dating to the various episodes of occupation indicated that the species use changed in a patterned way. Over time there was a decline in the use of juniper and pinon (native, slow-growing species of trees) and an increase in woody shrubs and fast-growing cottonwood. The species of wood used in the construction of buildings also changed. Fewer pinon were being used, and those that were used seem to be from increasingly old trees, while juniper continued to be from young trees. The implication is that the forest that did remain was changing to relatively more junipers, a tree that is more fire resistant, better able to reproduce in open settings, and less desirable for construction than pinon. Kohler argues that pinon was disappearing from the locale of settlements and that this put an additional nutritional strain on the population, which used nuts from the tree as well as its wood. The relative proportion of different species of animals hunted by people in the region also changed progressively. A final source of evidence was the seeds found in the archaeological deposits, which had blown or been brought to the settlement. As time went on, there was a substantial increase in seeds from pioneer plants, attesting both to agricultural intensification and to an increasingly disturbed local environment.

科勒用几类证据表明，人类影响，不仅仅是气候因素，是放弃定居点的重要因素。这些史前定居点周围环境变化的一个关键指标是那里使用的木材。考古学家对壁炉中发现的木炭进行了研究，这些木炭的年代可以追溯到不同的职业时期，研究结果表明，木炭的使用方式以一种模仿性的方式发生了变化。随着时间的推移，杜松(本地生长缓慢的树种)和松(pinon)的使用量下降，而木本灌木和快速生长的白杨的使用量增加。用于建筑的木材种类也发生了变化。使用的松木越来越少，而使用的松木似乎越来越老，而杜松仍然来自年轻的树木。这就意味着，留存下来的森林正在向相对较多的杜松转变。杜松是一种抗火能力更强、在开阔环境中繁殖能力更强、比松更不适合建筑的树种。科勒认为，pinon正在从定居点消失，这给当地居民带来了额外的营养压力，因为他们不仅使用木材，还使用树上的坚果。该地区人类猎杀的不同种类动物的相对比例也在逐步变化。最后的证据来源是在考古沉淀物中发现的种子，这些沉淀物要么被吹散，要么被带到定居点。随着时间的推移，先锋植物的种子大量增加，这证明了农业集约化和日益不安的当地环境。

P3: This evidence has convinced Kohler of the importance of human impact in degrading the local environment. His interpretation of the situation is that by about A.D. 840, people had aggregated into villages in favorable settings because of their competitive organizational advantages over smaller units in the face of growing population and depletion of local wild resources. Hence, the very nature of the initial slash-and-burn agriculture encouraged a further dependence on agriculture and the aggregation of people into denser settlements. However, there are costs to aggregation, such as the increasing distance to usable fields, the heavier pressure on local soils, and the accompanying increase in agricultural risk. The Anasazi responded to this by further intensification, such as water-control mechanisms, to feed the increasing population. Such a trajectory is fraught with risks, but it is also pushed forward by advantages it bestows on its participants who organize and cooperate. Advantages might include sharing food across groups in a village, investment in facilities to improve the processing and storage of food, and cooperative labor pools and social groupings larger than villages, which would enable organized long-distance hunts and participation in trading networks. Larger and larger villages became possible, but this also made the system vulnerable to collapse. A reliance on the management of resources through cooperative action reduced their flexibility of action, so that when poor seasons occurred, people were seriously hurt. Thus an expectable aberration in the climatic regime may have been enough to cause the collapse of the village system in the Dolores area.

这一证据使科勒相信人类影响对当地环境退化的重要性。他对这种情况的解释是，到公元840年左右，面对人口增长和当地野生资源的枯竭，人们聚集到环境有利的村庄，因为相对于较小的单位，这些村庄具有竞争性的组织优势。因此，最初刀耕火种农业的性质鼓励了对农业的进一步依赖和人口聚集到更密集的定居点。然而，集合体也有成本，例如到可用农田的距离越来越远，对当地土壤的压力越来越大，以及随之而来的农业风险增加。阿纳萨奇人对此的反应是进一步加强，例如水控制机制，以养活不断增加的人口。这样的轨道充满了风险，但它也被赋予组织和合作参与者的优势所推动。优势可能包括在一个村庄的不同群体之间分享食物，投资改善食品加工和储存设施，以及合作劳动力池和比村庄更大的社会群体，这将使有组织的长途狩猎和参与贸易网络成为可能。越来越大的村庄成为可能，但这也使得该系统容易崩溃。通过合作行动对资源管理的依赖降低了他们行动的灵活性，因此，当淡季发生时，人们会受到严重伤害。因此，气候状况的预期偏差可能足以导致多洛雷斯地区村庄系统的崩溃。

题目：

1. The word “ultimately” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. quietly

B. gradually

C. eventually

D. simply

2. According to paragraph 1, other archaeologists differ from Tim Kohler in giving which of the following as the reason for the abandonment of settlements by the Anasazi?

A. The nature of human interaction with the environment

B. A large increase in population over a short period of time

C. The way in which people gathered together in villages

D. A limited production of corn due to one short growing season after another Paragraph 1 is marked with an arrow [ð]

3. According to paragraph 1, Kohler views all of the following as changes that occurred as a result of increased population growth EXCEPT

A. the organization of the people into villages

B. the improvement of local soils

C. increased food production

D. a decrease in the number of trees in the area

4. The word “substantial” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. gradual

B. appropriate

C. apparent

D. significant

5. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 as changes over time in the pattern of wood use in prehistoric settlements EXCEPT:

A. Cottonwood was increasingly used in hearths.

B. Fewer pinon trees were used in building construction.

C. Juniper wood was increasingly used in hearths.

D. The pinon wood used in construction came increasingly from older trees.

6. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that juniper

A. is less valuable nutritionally than pinon is

B. is easily destroyed by fire

C. produces fewer seeds per plant than pinon does

D. reproduces easily in the presence of pinon

Wind pollination

1 Pollen, a powdery substance, which is produced by flowering plants and contains male reproductive cells, is usually carried from plant to plant by insects or birds, but some plants rely on the wind to carry their pollen. Wind pollination is often seen as being primitive and wasteful in costly pollen and yet it is surprisingly common, especially in higher latitudes. Wind is very good at moving pollen a long way; pollen can be blown for hundreds of kilometers, and only birds can get pollen anywhere near as far. The drawback is that wind is obviously unspecific as to where it takes the pollen. It is like trying to get a letter to a friend at the other end of the village by climbing onto the roof and throwing an armful of letters into the air and hoping that one will end up in the friend’s garden. For the relatively few dominant tree species that make up temperate forests, where there are many individuals of the same species within pollen range, this is quite a safe gamble. If a number of people in the village were throwing letters off roofs, your friend would be bound to get one. By contrast, in the tropics, where each tree species has few, widely scattered individuals, the chance of wind blowing pollen to another individual is sufficiently slim that animals area safer bet as transporters of pollen. Even tall trees in the tropics are usually not wind pollinated despite being in windy conditions. In a similar way, trees in temperate forests that are insect pollinated tend to grow as solitary, widely spread individuals.

花粉是一种粉状物质，由开花植物产生，含有雄性生殖细胞，通常由昆虫或鸟类从一株植物传播到另一株植物，但有些植物依靠风来传播花粉。风授粉通常被认为是原始和浪费昂贵的花粉，但令人惊讶的是，它是普遍的，特别是在高纬度地区。风很擅长把花粉吹到很远的地方;花粉可以被吹到几百公里以外的地方，只有鸟类才能把花粉带到尽可能远的地方。它的缺点是，风携带花粉的地方显然是不明确的。这就像试图爬上屋顶，把满满一抱信扔向空中，然后寄给住在村子另一头的朋友，希望有一封信能落在朋友的花园里。对于构成温带森林的相对较少的优势树种来说，这是一个相当安全的赌博。在温带森林中，同一树种的许多个体都在花粉范围之内。如果村里有许多人把信从屋顶上扔下来，你的朋友一定会收到的。相比之下，在热带地区，每一种树的个体数量少、分布广泛，风把花粉吹到另一个体身上的几率非常小，因此动物更愿意把花粉作为更安全的运输工具。即使是热带的高大树木，尽管处于有风的环境，通常也不会被风授粉。与此类似，温带森林中昆虫授粉的树木倾向于单独生长，广泛分布。

2 Since wind-pollinated flowers have no need to attract insects or other animals, they have dispensed with bright petals, nectar, and scent. These are at best a waste and at worst an impediment to the transfer of pollen in the air. The result is insignificant-looking flowers and catkins (dense cylindrical clusters of small, petalless flowers).

由于风媒传粉的花不需要吸引昆虫或其他动物，它们就不需要花瓣、花蜜和气味。这充其量是一种浪费，最坏的情况下也会阻碍花粉在空气中的传播。结果是看起来不起眼的花朵和柳絮(密集的圆柱形小花瓣簇)。

3 Wind pollination does, of course, require a lot of pollen. ■ Birch and hazel trees can produce5.5 and 4 million grains per catkin, respectively. ■There are various adaptations to help as much of the pollen go as far as possible. ■Most deciduous wind-pollinated trees (which shed their leaves every fall) produce their pollen in the spring while the branches are bare of leaves to reduce the surrounding surfaces that “compete” with the stigmas (the part of the flower that receives the pollen) for pollen. ■ Evergreen conifers, which do not shed their leaves, have less to gain from spring flowering, and, indeed, some flower in the autumn or winter.

当然，风授粉需要大量的花粉。■桦树和榛树可以produce5.5和400万粒/柔荑花序,分别。■有各种适应帮助尽可能多的花粉尽可能。■多数落叶树木风媒传粉(每年秋天里落叶)产生花粉在春天,树枝光秃秃的树减少周围的表面,“竞争”的污名(接收花粉的花的一部分)的花粉。■常绿针叶树,不摆脱了叶子,有从春天开花,获利减少,事实上,一些花在秋天或冬天。

4 Pollen produced higher in the top branches is likely to go farther, it is windier (and gustier) and the pollen can be blown farther before hitting the ground. Moreover, dangling catkins like hazel hold the pollen in until the wind is strong enough to ben them, ensuring that pollen is only shed into the air when the wind is blowing hard. Weather is also important. Pollen is shed primarily when the air is dry to prevent too much sticking to wet surfaces or being knocked out of the air by rain. Despite these adaptations, much of the pollen fails to leave the top branches, and only between 0.5 percent and 40 percent gets more than 100 meters away from the parent. But once this far, significant quantities can go a kilometer or more. Indeed, pollen can travel many thousands of kilometers at high altitudes. Since all this pollen is floating around in the air, it is no wonder that wind-pollinated trees are a major source of allergies.

顶枝产生的花粉可能飞得更远，它的风更大(也更有活力)，而且花粉在落地之前可以被吹得更远。此外，像榛子一样悬挂的柳絮可以将花粉保持在空气中，直到风力足够大到可以将花粉吹散为止，确保花粉只有在风大的时候才会被释放到空气中。天气也很重要。花粉主要在空气干燥时脱落，以防止过多的花粉粘在潮湿的表面或被雨水从空气中带走。尽管有这些适应性，许多花粉还是无法离开顶端的树枝，只有0.5%到40%的花粉能够离开母体100米以上。但是一旦达到这个高度，相当数量的水就可以流到一公里甚至更远。事实上，花粉在高海拔地区可以传播数千公里。由于所有这些花粉都漂浮在空气中，因此风媒传粉的树木成为过敏的主要来源也就不足为奇了。

5 Once the pollen has been snatched by the wind, but not everything is left to chance. Wind borne pollen is dry, rounded, smooth, and generally smaller than that of insect-pollinated plants. But size is a two-edged sword. Small grains may be blown farther but they are also more prone to be whisked past the waiting stigma because smaller particles tend to stay trapped in the fast-moving air that flows around the stigma. But stigmas create turbulence, which slows the air speed around them and may help pollen stick to them.

花粉一旦被风带走，并非一切都是偶然的。风媒花粉干燥、圆润、光滑，一般比昆虫授粉的植物小。但规模是一把双刃剑。小颗粒可能被吹得更远，但它们也更容易被吹过等待的柱头，因为较小的颗粒往往停留在围绕柱头流动的快速空气中。但柱头会产生湍流，从而减慢周围的空气速度，并可能帮助花粉粘在柱头上。

题目：

1. The word “drawback” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. other side of the issue

B. objection

C. concern

D. problem

2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about pollen production?

A. Pollen production requires a significant investment of energy and resources on the part of the plant.

B. The capacity to produce pollen in large quantities is a recent development in the evolutionary history of plants.

C. Plants in the tropics generally produce more pollen than those in temperate zones.

D. The highest levels of pollen production are found in plants that depend on insects or birds to carry their pollen.

3. According to paragraph 1, wind-pollinated trees are most likely to be found

A. in temperate forests

B. at lower latitudes

C. in the tropics

D. surrounded by trees of many different species

4. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following as the reason animals are a safer bet than wind as pollinators when the individual trees of a species are widely separated?

A. Animals tend to carry pollen from a given flower further than the wind does.

B. Animals serve as pollinators even where there is little wind to disperse the pollen.

C. An animal that visits a flower is likely to deliberately visit other flowers of the same species and pollinate them.

D. Birds and insects fly in all directions, not just the direction the wind is blowing at a given moment.

5. In paragraph 1, the author compares pollen moved by wind with letters thrown off roofs in order to

A. explain why there are relatively few species of trees that depend on wind pollination

B. compare natural, biological processes with human social practices

C. make a point about the probability of wind-blown pollen reaching a tree of the same species

D. argue against the common assumption that the tallest trees are the most likely to employ wind pollination

6. Paragraph 2 suggests that wind-pollinated plants do not have bright petals, nectar, and scent for which TWO of the following reasons? To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.

A. They interfere with pollination by wind.

B. They are easily damaged by wind.

C. They are unnecessary.

D. They reduce the amount of pollen that can be produced.

7. The word “respectively” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. over time

B. separately

C. in that order

D. consistently

2018年12月8日托福预测机经

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